The Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians:
Forest Resource Relationships 1700-1900
Daniel M. Heth
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The Struggle for Minnesota
History
Land Cessions and Treaties of the 1800’s
Ojibwa Land Cessions
Forest Resources used for Shelter
Construction
Hunting Tools
Agriculture
Summary
Works Cited
Introduction
The Red Lake Band of Ojibwa
(1)
Indians
reservation is located 30 miles north of Bemidji, Minnesota. Their
territory once encompassed millions of acres from northern
Minnesota, east to Devils Lake, ND, and south into Wisconsin. The
reservation is now less than 300,000 acres. Timber resources
provided food, shelter, medicines, clothing, weapons,
transportation, and cooking materials. My research will concentrate
on Ojibwa Forest Resource History, from 1700 to 1900, with an
emphasis on treaties that divided the landscape creating what we now
know as Minnesota.
(1)
For the purpose of
this paper Ojibwa and Chippewa will be used interchangeably.
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The Struggle for Minnesota
Due to treaties in later years this wide expanse of land would be
greatly diminished by the year 1900. The Ojibwa often had deadly
encounters with neighboring Sioux and Dakota war parties that fought
for the fertile lands.
(2)
According to
Roufs the Ojibwa-Dakota wars began in 1736 when a party from La
Pointe attacked a Dakota settlement in retaliation for the Dakota’s
killing 21 Ojibwa allies. Fighting continued into the early 1800’s,
but the Ojibwa already controlled the entire northern section of
Minnesota. The main turning point was in 1745-46 when the Ojibwa
defeated the largest Dakota settlement with the help of rifles and
gunpowder obtained from fur traders. “The only manner in which the
Ojibwa could harass and dislodge them from (their earthen lodges),
was to throw small bundles or bags of powder into the aperture made
in the top of each…the bundles ignited by the fire, spread death and
dismay amongst the miserable beings who crowded within…the Dakotas
were still ignorant of the nature of gunpowder, and the idea
possessing their minds that their enemies were aided by spirits,
they gave up the fight in despair and were easily dispatched”
(Roufs). Normal Ojibwa war confrontations were over in a day or
less, The Battle of Kathio lasted for three days, the length
illustrates the magnitude of this confrontation. There were some
Dakota that lived to start a new village, but in 1770 the Ojibwa
drove them out in the Battle of Crow Wing.
The other geographically significant battle came on an early
morning raid when the Ojibwa attacked and killed 335 Dakota near the
fork of the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers. The Dakota were still
inadequately armed and were driven off quickly. The battle yielded a
forested area between La Pointe and the Mississippi river that the
Ojibwa used as a safe haven from Dakota raids. From 1740-1750 the
Dakota suffered numerous defeats in North-central Minnesota that
forced a retreat that moved them all the way west of the
Mississippi.(Roufs) Sporadic fighting continued into the 19th
century but paused in 1825 with the American “recommended” Treaty of
Prairie du Chien.
The Treaty of Prairie du Chien was delegated by William Clark and
with the promise of extravagant gifts and American trade factories,
boundaries were negotiated. However, all the Ojibwa were not present
so agreement came after the Fond du Lac (1826) and Butte de Morts
(1827) treaties were completed. Peace lasted for one year until the
Ojibwa ambushed the Dakota near Fort Snelling causing Dakota
retaliation a year later with an attack upon an Ojibwa chief during
a visit. The Americans captured and turned over the guilty parties
to the Ojibwa.
1
In the morning two guilty
parties were brought to the Ojibwa under a son of Flat Mouth, one
accepted his fate and received quick death
(3)
,
while the other ran and was soon captured and trampled on by Sioux
and Ojibwa alike…” cowards were subjected to every species of
indignity.”
2
According to Sultzman the late 1700’s brought movement of the
Ojibwa across all of Minnesota and in 1792 the Ojibwa permanently
settled at Red Lake. Ojibwa that moved west of Minnesota came to be
known as Plains Ojibwa. Some fighting did continue into the early
1800’s that only fueled Ojibwa hatred for the Sioux. In July of
1832, a meeting with Schoolcraft and Allen, Chief Flat Mouth of the
Leech Lake band told his side: “it was decreed by the Great Spirit
that hatred and war should ever exist between the Sioux and
themselves; that this decree could never be changed; and the
Chippewas must ever act accordingly.”
(2)
Observation from
Schoolcraft in 1827,(from Roufs) “After the leaves had begun to
fall, and during the whole winter and early part of spring,
seasons the most valuable for hunting, no war party was ever
conducted. Severity of climate and the facility with which
scouting parties may track each other in the snow, forbid all
attempts of the kind. And hence it is, that the care and the
business of war, scarcely, ever interrupted the pursuits of the
chase”.
(3)
“Accounts vary. H.H. Snelling
writes that they refused to run, and, facing there foes, told them
to fire”. From, Schoolcraft’s Reminiscences, p. 618.
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History
In 1806, a British fur trading post was established near Red Lake
and brought in goods and materials never seen by the Chippewa.
(4)
The relationship between Indians and Traders was built by respect
and gratitude.
4
Life with the traders
brought about changes in Indians lives. Traders married Indian wives
as cultures began to mix. Farming tools acquired via trade with the
British increased agricultural productivity and the Red Lake Indians
began to “master” agricultural practices. According to Mittleholtz,
by the mid 1800’s reports came out of the Indian villages from
Indian Agents (sent by the U.S. government) telling of crop yields
and quantity never before seen back east. In fact they were so
efficient that during some winter periods they would take in
starving families because of there surplus of food previously
stored. Little did the Chippewa know that the Sioux were now the
least of their problems.
In 1839, D. P. Bushwell, Sub-Agent at LaPointe, Wisconsin
reported on the lifestyle of these Indians back to the capitol as
well as population. The populations of Chippewa’s at Red Lake were
70 men, 90 women, and 130 children for a total of 290 Chippewa’s.
5
Reports going back to the capitol contained information on culture,
lifestyle, and most importantly...natural resources. Timber and
mineral products dotted the landscape surrounding pristine Red Lake.
U.S. leaders sought raw materials like timber, copper, and iron ore
to fuel western expansion and engaged Indian leaders to push for
land acquisitions.
6
In 1853 D. B.
Herriman, the new Ojibwa agent stated that:
“Farms were opened at the Agency of Red Lake,
Sandy Lake, Gull Lake, and at Mille Lacs”. He also suggested a
saw mill for Red Lake, stating, "There is a fine mill-site
within one mile of the agency, surrounded by magnificent pines,
in quantity sufficient to last the Indians fifty years”.
7
Government agents never seemed to stay longer than a few years at
most, and with every new incoming agent that meant there was a
different description of the people, life-styles, resources, and a
new view from the government. The U.S. saw the potential economic
value of the property and wanted to exercise control over this
wealth. One of the first steps was the building of a school in Red
Lake in 1850.
(5)
Shortly thereafter the
Indians began seeing greater yields and attendance at the school was
increasing. At these schools the girls were taught knitting, sewing,
and cooking while the boys sharpened their ability to work with
tools. Mittleholtz went on to say about Herriman; It is interesting
to note that he also calls for, and urges the establishment of
manual-labor schools where book education should have little
attention. He urged that the children be taught the use of tools and
be put in various shops to learn anything useful; that they learn to
wash, bake, knit, make soap and candles, to reside in houses, sleep
in beds, eat at tables on plates, with knives and forks; and in
general he asked that their culture be changed. Finally, he
suggested, "Let books be a secondary consideration, except to those
who are too young to handle tools."
8
The government built schools where boys could become master
loggers and then in the future they would be the ones taking down
the timber resources once utilized by their ancestors. They had
given them the necessary tools, now all they needed was to put those
acquired skills to work.
(4)
According to
Roufs, first contact with whites actually came in 1612 when
European traders began establishing trade relations.
(5)
Research has shown me that the
U.S. offered many things to Indians in order to “Americanize” them
and acquire land.
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Land Cessions and Treaties of the 1800’s
Treaties made during the 1800’s changed the scenery of Minnesota
forever. These treaties called for the removal of most Pine species
and later, the extraction of minerals. Attempts at gaining land from
the Ojibwa didn’t come with ease. The Ojibwa were very adamant about
keeping the land they had lived on for more than 200 years. As
Indian agents continued to spread word of lavish amounts of natural
resources not being utilized, the push to acquire land got heavier
and harder. Officials that worked out treaties with the Indians
often misrepresented (or left out completely) true facts that lead
to future grievances between the two (Mittleholtz). The problem was,
that the number actually at negotiations was not a very good
representative of the population. For a treaty to pass male members
18 or older voted and the treaty passed if voted for it. Of the near
3,000 neighboring tribe’s people, the total voters in 1864 did not
exceed 300 males, but it did pass! However, two such members not
present at this time were Chief Moose Dung and Chief Red Bear. When
news of this was heard the two chiefs sent delegates to mitigate and
ratify the treaty early in 1864, the same year the Indian agent at
that post was replaced. (Mittleholtz) This victory, however large it
may have seemed at the time was only a delay of future land and
timber cessions.
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Ojibwa Land Cessions
Between the years of 1781-1927 there were more than 50 land
treaties or agreements signed with the U.S. and Canada.
9-10
This isn’t counting the many more number of ratified or changed
agreements during the same time. Each treaty signed was important
but there were some that ceded large amounts of land and resources.
With each treaty signed the Ojibwa were pushed farther north.
-
1781
—
Treaty between the British and various
bands of the Ojibwa for land around the Niagara River.
11
-
1819
—
Treaty in which the Ojibwa cede land in
southern Michigan.
-
1821
—
Remaining Ojibwa sell the rest of their
land in southwestern Michigan and move north.
-
1836
—
Ottawa and Ojibwa sell Lower Michigan and
eastern half of Upper Michigan.
-
1837
—
The first major land cession took place at
present day Minneapolis-St. Paul in Minnesota. Here the Ojibwa
traded away a large piece of their Wisconsin lands for a
twenty-year annuity of $9,500 in cash, $19,000 in goods
(blankets, rifles, and cooking utensils), $2000 worth of
provisions, $3000 to establish and maintain three blacksmiths’
shops, and $500 worth of tobacco. Congress appropriated another
$70,000 to liquidate certain claims against Indians” (Roufs). A
final treaty provision reserved the Ojibwa’s right to hunt,
fish, and gather wild rice on ceded lands.
12
Roufs goes on to talk about how the Treaty of 1837 set a
precedent for which future treaties would follow;
- Treaty terms particularly favored traders.
-
It opened lands for future white settlement and commercial
development.
-
Attempt to “civilize” and to “Americanize” Indians through
education and the promotion of farming.
-
Complete disregard of Ojibwa concepts of property and
land-use.
- Officials also labeled Ojibwa groups as “bands”.
-
Allowance of Indians outside of said territory into
negotiations to cede land of other Ojibwa peoples.
In many of the payments maid farming tools were often a major
percentage. Through payment of farming equipment the U.S. wanted to
turn Indians into farmers and “civilize” them. “The U.S. believed
that it was a great melting pot, and believed Indian culture could
not—and should not—survive contact with civilization” (Roufs).
Whites thought much of the Indian land was being “wasted” and not
utilized correctly. Whites saw this fertile soil and only imagined
what they thought the land should be like.
-
1842
—
Treaty cedes rich copper and irons areas
in northern Michigan.
-
1854
—
ARTICLE 1. The Chippewa’s of Lake Superior
hereby cede to the United States all the lands heretofore owned
by them in common with the Chippewa’s of the Mississippi, lying
east of the following boundary line, to wit: Beginning at a
point, where the east branch of Snake River crosses the southern
boundary line of the Chippewa country, running thence up the
said branch to its source, thence nearly north, in a straight
line, to the mouth of East Savannah River, thence up the St.
Louis River to the mouth of East Swan River, thence up the East
swan River to its source, thence in a straight line to the most
westerly bend of Vermillion River, and thence down the
Vermillion River to its mouth. The Chippewa of the Mississippi
hereby assent and agree to the foregoing cession and consent
that the whole amount of the consideration money for the country
ceded above, shall be paid to the Chippewa of Lake Superior, and
in consideration thereof the Chippewa of Lake Superior hereby
relinquish to the Chippewa of the Mississippi, all their
interest in and claim to the lands heretofore owned by them in
common, lying west of the above boundary-line.
13
-
1864
—
Treaty with Pembina and Red Lake cedes the
Red River Valley, an area considered one of the richest
agricultural area in the United States.
-
1866
—
Last major treaty between the Ojibwa and
the United States government in which the Bois Forte band cedes
a small piece of land in northern Minnesota.
-
1869
—
United States purchase a large tract of
land in northern Minnesota from Red Lake band. The reservation
that The Red Lake band in now was formed in this agreement.
-
1871
—
Ojibwa around Lake Manitoba cede large
tract in southern Manitoba.
-
1873
—
Ojibwa cede land in southern Ontario to
Minnesota.
The attempt to remove all Indians finally gave way with the
continued uproar from the Ojibwa. Instead of removal the U.S.
decided to allow reservations to be formed where the Indians could
go to live.
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Forest Resource Utilization
The Red Lake band of Chippewa Indians utilized forest resources
extensively in their daily lives. Most of the time it was the women
of the clan that gathered and processed timber materials, however
men usually took care of making canoes (Lyford). Wood products were
integral to nearly every product that they used. This section will
concentrate on some materials the Ojibwa made out of available
forest resources.
Ceremonies played a major role in the maturation and life of the
Ojibwa. To indicate a ceremony had taken place at a certain location
totem poles were located at the front entrance and sometimes
evergreen trees were pruned so that only the top branches were left.
14
Mide drums or water drums (a sacred instrument) were only used in
Midewiwin ceremonies. These drums were made out of the trunk of
basswood. “A section of the trunk is removed, hollowed out, and near
the bottom a partition is made and glued in with pitch so that it is
watertight.”
15
(For more information on
drum making look to Lyford’s book on Ojibwa Crafts). Tambourines,
drums, and other musical instruments were used only for important
ceremonies or dances. Wooden flutes were another instrument that was
made by the Ojibwa out of ash, cedar, and box elder. The wooden
flutes or “pipigwans” were used to woo the maiden of a lover’s
choice (Lyford, 32). Frances Densmore also tells of the flute being
used during war time as a warning or signal of approaching danger to
the village
16
. Other materials such as:
cord and twine, snowshoes, bows, birch bark charts, and many others
were also used on daily basis.Cord or twine were integral parts of
the Ojibwa economic life since they were used in many of their
crafts. Cord was made from the fibers in the stalks of the false
nettle, and the bark of basswood, white cedar, and slippery elm.
Birch-bark rolls were used to record teachings of the Midwiwin,
good hunting/fishing/collection areas, stories, and even maps.
Figures on the rolls were engraved with bone stylus, and the lines
filled with vermillion (Densmore, 89). Often the stories told were
of great importance, such as the story told by Nawajibigokwe. A
picture she drew illustrates the scourge of smallpox that broke out
near her father’s grandmother’s village. The epidemic had a great
toll on her village with very few surviving. Many, because a
medicine man known as Nanibawi (Standing still) “crept down to the
river and lay his body in the water and his head on shore, he called
to the people saying, “See I have turned into a great snake with
horns. I extend far into the water.” He called to his wife and
children to come into the water and rub against his body, saying
that if they do this they will recover” (Densmore, 182). Needless to
say some villagers followed what he said and rubbed against him in
the water, and washed themselves thoroughly. Some thought he was
crazy and had nothing to do with it. But, those who followed his
directions lived through the disease.
(6)
Birch-bark rolls served as a way of recording history and passing on
stories of old…to younger generations.
Canoes were essential to the Ojibwa way of life. The Ojibwa used
canoes as a source of transportation and to keep up trade relations.
Canoes were hollowed out using fire, then lined with birch-bark and
sewed together with wigob
and gummed with pine, balsam, or
tamarack pitch
(7)
(Roufs).
(6)
(Densmore, 182) “A
similar instance was related concerning a band of Indians
fleeing from the smallpox who started toward Lake Superior. They
were taken sick and one of their number went in to the water and
turned into a great turtle. All who rubbed against her were
cured of the disease.
(7)
The hollowing of trees to make
canoes was just one method used to construct canoes.
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Forest Resources used for Shelter
Construction
An enormous portion of forest resources went towards the
construction of homes or short term shelters. The effort that went
into these shelters was usually determined by how long they would
live at that location. Much of the Ojibwa life was formed around
moving from area to area, either for food, harvesting vegetables, or
on the war path. Tanner tells of the yearly Ojibwa cycle; “Before
the non-Indians arrived, the Ojibwa followed a yearly cycle of
fishing; hunting; collecting maple sap; gathering nuts, berries, and
medicinal herbs; growing corn; and harvesting rice. With the change
of each season, they moved to the area best suited for performing
one of the necessary tasks”.
17
Wigwams,
tipis, dance shelters, sweat houses, maple sugar camps, and
ceremonial shelters were all built out of available forest
resources, with the dance hall being the largest of the structures
built. Sweat houses were used to cleanse one of sickness and also
for maturation purposes. Sweat houses used for maturation were very
small single person sweat houses. Twine and cord made from basswood,
red cedar, and elm bark were used to tie main supports together.
Usually birch or elm bark was used to shed rain (Mittleholtz).
Wigwams were the mainstay of Ojibwa shelters. “A wigwam could be
constructed in less than a day with materials readily available in
the woodlands. Ojibwa men first placed raw wood saplings in the
ground, creating an oval measuring approximately 14 x 20 ft. While
they pulled the saplings together in arches, women tied the
framework with wood fibers. Then the family placed birch bark over
the structure and covered the doorway with an animal hide.”
18
When it came time to re-locate for hunting season the Ojibwa rolled
up the outer covering and left the wooden frame.
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Hunting Tools
Hunting was integral to the survival of Ojibwa families, because
of this, bows and arrows were worked on rigorously. “The Ojibwa
hunted primarily deer, moose, bear, fox and wolf, but also took
porcupine, beaver, muskrat, otter, mink, and others (Roufs). Elk was
also hunted until the 18th century when they were driven to
extinction. Ancient bows of the Ojibwa were made of a flat piece of
hickory or ash that was tapered at the ends. Ironwood, maple, pine,
and red cedar were used for arrows that could travel up to 500 ft.
(Roufs). According to Lyford the length of the bow was determined by
the distance from the point of the shoulder…across the chest to the
end of the middle finger of the opposite hand.
Roufs went on to say; “although a good arrow
would travel up to 500 ft. the 'shooting' range for deer was
only some 50 ft. Ojibwa hunters pitted their stamina against
large animals, steadily stalking them throughout the day. They
knew an animal eventually tired, especially in winter snow,
allowing the hunter an easy approach and kill.”
Tools used for hunting allowed the Ojibwa to provide for their
families and helped promote accurate shooting that was needed during
war times! This all changed when the Ojibwa received powder and
rifles from traders in the mid 1800’s, but archery never completely
died out.
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Agriculture
According to Roufs the Ojibwa cultivated various crops such as:
corn, squash, beans, potatoes, pumpkins, rice, and tobacco.
Blackhawk was quoted as saying; “the quality and quantity of the
crops that were produced was due mainly to the fertile soil”.
Trading with British Fur Trades began in the early 1800’s, bringing
new farming tools that increased crop yields (According to Indian
Agents). I believe the yields seen pre-trader era was still very
good; however, the more efficient tools and vast numbers of incoming
settlers and loggers lead to an increase in total area being farmed.
Additionally, excellent harvesting and storing techniques permitted
them to survive long and arduous winters. Birch bark storage
containers buried in the ground helped preserve valuable grains
19
.
According to Lyford; women usually spent a good portion of each
summer day constructing storage containers from birch bark. Birch
bark containers were used to store maple sugar and many other
things.
Another semi-domesticated crop was maple sugar. Maple sugar ( si-si-ba-kwat
)
was a more than just something to eat, “it symbolized good relations
between people and harmony between people and the natural and
super-natural worlds”.
20
Sugaring was an
integral part of the harvest year. Sugar maple camp homes were
usually made of horizontal elm pieces, ironwood supports, and the
inner bark of basswood (
wigob
) to tie it all together
(Roufs).
After establishment on the reservation, agriculture and farming
played an enormous role in Ojibwa life. Life was dependant on the
ability to grow and harvest crops efficiently and effectively. This
is part of the history which shaped the culture of Red Lake.
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Summary
The Red Lake band of Chippewa Indians survived for more than 200
years on this land. Over the course of hundreds of years the Ojibwa
perfected methods to remove forest resources and convert them into
required materials. “Normal” life for the Ojibwa became quite
different with the signing of land cessions from 1781-1927. After
the U.S. entered Ojibwa territories through treaties and land
cessions, previously forested pine lands were changed forever. To
this day, the Red Lake band of Chippewa Indians still reside in
their self-governed reservation.
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Works Cited
1
Lee Sultzman.
http://www.tolatsga.org/ojib.html
2
William W. Warren. HISTORY OF THE
OJIBWA NATION, (Ross and Haines Inc. Minneapolis, MN, 1957)
3
Minnesota Governor and
Superintendent of Indian Affairs Alexander Ramsey to Commissioner of
Indian Affairs Luke Lea, November 3, 1851, CIA 1851, p 153;
Schoolcraft,
Schoolcraft’s Expedition to Itasca
, 110. From
Edmund Jefferson Danziger, Jr.,
The Chippewas of Lake Superior
,
Volume 148,
The Civilization if the American Indian Series
, 1979,
University of Oklahoma Press.
4
Ronald N. Satz.
Chippewa Treaty
Rights: The Reserved Rights of Wisconsin’s Chippewa Indians in
Historical Perspective
. (Transactions Vol. 79, #1, 1991)
5
Erwin F. Mittlehotlz (History of Red
Lake and the Vicinity)
6
Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife
Commission. http://www.glifwc.org/
pub/sandy_brochure.pdf
7
E. F. M. (History of Red Lake and
the Vicinity)
8
E. F. M. (History of Red Lake and
the Vicinity)
9
List of Canadian treaties from Indian and Northern Affairs
, Canada. Maps
and
additional information
, including “
selected treaties from the
National Archives of Canada
.”
10
list of U.S. treaties compiled by
the Institute for the Development of Indian Law, 927 15th Street,
N.W., Suite 612, Washington, D.C. 20005, May 1974
11
Thomas Peacock and Marlene Wisuri.
Ojibwe,
Waasa Inaabibaa
, We Look in All Directions. (Afton
Historical Society Press, 2000)
12
Indian Country
(http://www.mpm.edu/wirp/ICW-110.html#related)
13
THE FOURTH WORLD DOCUMENTATION
PROJECT, Questions and comments on FWDP can be addressed to, John
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1:352/333 :: :: 98507-2574 206-786-9629, USA The Quarto Mundista BBS
14
Carrie A. Lyford.
Ojibwa Crafts.
(Stevens Point, WI.:
R. Schneider, 1982), 20.
15
C.A.L.
Ojibwa Craft
16
Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs,
1867-1957, 132
17
Helen Hornbeck Tanner. Indians of
North America. The Ojibwa. D’ Arcy Center for the History of the
American Indian, Newberry Library. Chelsea House Publishers, 1992.
18
H.H. Tanner (Indians of North
America)
19
C.A.L.
Ojibwa Crafts
20
Timothy G. Roufs.
The
Anishinabe of the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe.
(Indian Tribal
Series and The Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, 1975)
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