Lake Superior Ojibwa:

Wild Rice and Waterfowl

Nick Besasie

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Today wild rice can be found through out much of the northern climes of North America and the southern reaches of Canada. The value of wild rice as a food source for both man and animal is undeniable. Wild rice or manoominike (the Ojibwa name) has had a profound effect on the face of our nation. The Ojibwa people have a special connection to wild rice. The early citizens of the United States felt that covering the land from east to west was their manifest destiny. However, the early people of North America moved west for a different reason; “According to Ojibwe prophecy, the Great Spirit Gichi Manidoo told the Anishinaabe to move west from the Atlantic coast until they found the food that grows on water” (Bad River). The Anishinaabe people are those that are commonly referred to as the Ojibwa or Chippewa Native Americans. In the same regard, the “food that grows on the water” is wild rice. Their’s is a rich tradition of gathering wild rice. The gathering rights of the Ojibwa are protected in the Treaty of 1854 (copy of treaty in appendix). Wild rice is more than a plant that was used for food and trade. Wild rice is a way of life. A way of life that dominated a culture for many generations.

Wild Rice the Plant

Wild rice is a not a rice at all. In fact, wild rice is the only cereal grass native to North America. There are three separate species of wild rice that are found in North America. Some of these range as far south as Texas and Georgia and as far west as California. The scientific name of the wild rice that the Ojibwa harvested is Zizania palustris (Vennum). Wild rice grows in shallow waters of many lakes and rivers. It was noted by Father Jacques Marquette, “The Wild Oat…is a sort of grass, which grows naturally in the small Rivers with muddy bottoms, and in Swampy Places” (Jesuit Relations). Wild rice ranges throughout northern North America and southern Canada. The life cycle of wild rice is quite simple. Following the light from the sun, wild rice germinates in May. It grows up through the water column and begins to breach the surface sometime in early June. From this point on, an erect stalk grows out the water. In late August and again in early September, a seed head appears. It is at this point that the seed either falls off the stalk or is collected. Naturally growing wild rice produces seed indeterminately. This means that all of the seed does not ripen at same time.

Wild rice generally follows a four year pattern. One year there is a heavy mast of seed. Subsequently, there are a couple of years in which seed production is fair. The fourth year in the cycle, the wild rice experiences crop failure (Fannucchi). There are also several biotic factors that can adversely affect crop production. Among the most harmful is the Redwing Blackbird. They can pillage entire crops. Fungi can also cause a devastating rash of disease. Another biotic killer are nematodes. There are several different species of nematodes that can damage wild rice. Abiotic factors such as storms with strong winds and hail can cause irreversible damage to annual production (Duke).

Wild Rice the Gathering

The Chippewa people have mastered the ways of wild rice gathering. It is a time of family and privilege. Ricing begins in August and is continued throughout September. The backbone of ricing can be summarized as a women and her canoe. It was primarily a task that women performed, although, men would occasionally paddle the women through the rice beds. The physical act of gathering rice is simple. The women would bend the rice stalks over the side of their canoe and bang the heads of the plant with a cedar stick. The stick usually was a few feet long and devoid of bark. The rice would then fall off into the bottom of the canoe. At times, the stalk heads would be bundled together by the women a month prior to gathering. This allowed for a much more efficient harvesting process. Others believe that bundling rice was done in an effort to stake a claim on a rice bed. Binding rice stalks together was practiced widely, and each woman had a unique way of binding the rice stalks together. This was done to distinguish ownership of the stand. As noted by the Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission, “As added insurance, some women died their bark (binding strips), each a different color, or incorporated bits of colored yarn into the binding.” Once the canoe was full, the rice was transported to shore. Some rice beds could be harvested multiple times in a single year (Vennum).

Other accounts of ricing are very similar.

This quote provides us with a summary of the events that lead into the wild rice gathering season. We also get a glimpse of what the daily activities surrounding the ricing grounds may have been for men and women respectively. What the quote fails to address is the Manoominike-Giizis, which is the Ojibwa term for the Wild Rice Moon. The Wild Rice Moon falls in between the Blueberry Moon and the Turning of Leaves Moon (Anishinabeg). Also, this quote brings to light what some Ojibwa consider unnatural. It was through the reseeding efforts of many bands hat allowed Wild Rice to escape into lakes that it was not normally found in.

This excerpt from Lolita Taylor’s correspondence is very telling of the care and patience with which the Ojibwa people gathered wild rice. Referrences to multiple gatherings from a single bed is a testimate to the very nature of wild rice in that it does not produce all of its seed all at once. This is a defense mechanism against herbivory and climatic challenges that plague wild rice. One aspect of the quote that is highly noticeable is the blame that the Ojibwa people might place on themselves for a year of poor crop production. Reseeding rice is not mentioned here, but allowing some seeds to fall into the water is an important recognition. It is this type of understanding which has allowed rice to persist as well as it has.

Today the ricing traditions of old are still an important aspect of the Ojibwa way of life and it appears to be growing in popularity among others in the population. The ability of the Chippewa people to recognize the need to leave a portion of the rice was an essential part for producing crop in the following years and for other purposes.

Wild Rice Preparation and Camps

The harvesting of wild rice is just the first step in a process that provides the rich bounty. Much has been written about the process of finishing the green rice that is harvested from the fields. As described in an earlier quote the rice is placed on birch bark to dry. The rice is then parched. Once European settlers arrived, this was a lot easier because the Ojibwa were able to obtain copper kettles. Next, the process of removing the husks off the rice grain must be completed. This was done by placing the rice in a basket. Then an elder, generally a male, would slowly grind their feet back and forth over the rice (Roufs). This would remove the husks. Next, the rice was put into a birch bark winnowing basket. The chaff and rice were then flung into the air. The chaff, being significantly lighter, would float away on the breeze leaving nothing but clean grain (Waukau).

Wild rice is a delicate grass and its finishing process must be done quickly to prevent spoiling. The Ojibwa would set up ricing camps along the shores of the lake in which they intended to gather rice from. Thomas Vennum writes, “Such a move ensured proximity to the crop and the capacity to process rice, to prevent it from spoiling, as soon as it was unloaded from the boats.” Camp was also an aesthetically pleasing environment. New and old friends were acquainted. As the routine of camp life became second nature, it allowed members to participate in other activities such as hunting and trapping. All this activity was monitored by the rice chief. The rice chief decided exactly when to start harvesting, how much to harvest, and when to stop (Roufs). It is the culmination of these events which speaks to the value of wild rice to the Ojibwa people.

Wild Rice the Importance to a People

Wild rice, as we have discussed, is more than just a plant to the Ojibwa people. The spiritual connection to the plant cannot be ignored. In The Mishomis Book we find this written, “Wild Rice has always been regarded as a sacred gift of their chosen ground” (Benton-Benai). Still today we see the utmost respect for this valuable resource. Wild rice was a valuable food source, but at times, it also provided opportunities for economic gain. Wild rice was traded to the whites for a wide array of things. Once the whites had acquired a taste for this cereal grass, rice became an even more advantageous trade item. Thomas Vennum writes, “Wild Rice played its strongest role in a healthy Ojibway economy during the fur trade…its requirements by Europeans for sustenance ensured, and its harvesting, processing, and marketing exclusively in Indian hands.” Rice could be traded for blankets, gun powder, and other commodities that the whites possessed and the Ojibwa desired. Wild rice for trade could be measured a variety of ways. One of the most common ways was with a deer fawn skin (Vennum). Still today we can see wild rice produced by the Ojibway has a place in the market.

Apart from the evident economic value, we can still find examples in today’s world of wild rice’s intrinsic and spiritual values. One such place is the Lac du Flambeau reservation located in north central Wisconsin. Lac du Flambeau Band of Chippewa Indians have their rights to gather rice protected by the treaties of 1842 and 1854. Lac Du Flambeau translates to Lake of the Torches, which is a tribute to the use of torches during the fish spearing season. The Lac Du Flambeau reservation is required to have an Integrated Resource Management Plan (IRMP). A survey addressing the IRMP was distributed to tribal members. The questions were geared toward finding out what resources were important to the tribal members. According to the survey seventy two percent of all people surveyed listed water quality as a resource that needed special prtection. Fifty percent of the people who identified water quality as an area of concern went further to say that wild rice, spefically, was a resource in need of management and protection. In questions regarding the gathering of resources, ninty four percent of all respondents recognized wild rice as a resource in need of safeguarding. It is clear that wild rice is an important aspect of life on the Lac du Flambeau reservation. It was also reported that at least sixty nine percent of all people surveyed are likely participate in wild rice harvests on an annual basis. Deeper investigation shows that women, more than men, identify rice as a valuable resource not just for food, but for its aesthetic qualities. This could possibly be connected to the roots of wild ricing, in that it was largely carried out by women.

Much is being done to ensure that wild rice will persist for younger generations to enjoy. The Lac Du Flambeau tribe has taken many steps to ensure water quality and sound management of wild rice. The Lac Du Flambeau have resisted mining which, almost without exception, degrades water quality. The Lac Du Flambeau also are members of the Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission (GLIFWC). In the year 1995 alone, it was reported that “6,390 pounds of wild rice were reseeded in lakes” (Erickson). This was all done by GLIFWC at the bidding of the Wild Rice Committee which is comprised of members from GLIFWC, the Wisconsin State Department of Natural Resources, Nicolet, Chequamegon, and Ottawa National Forests. On the reservation itself, the Lac Du Flambeau runs a series of programs throughout the year entitled “Everything We Use Comes From Nature” (Lac du Flambeau). In late summer and fall of the year, the program focuses on wild rice and proper methods of harvesting. This program includes ideas pertaining to safe harvest limits which help the plant reseed naturally. The Lac du Flambeau and the Lake Superior Ojibwa are very mindful of the benefits that wild rice provides. Benefits that are obvious and obscure alike.

Wild Rice the Wildfowl Provider

We have covered the value of wild rice for human consumption and its value as an essential crop of trade and economic gain. What has not been mentioned, however, is its value to wildlife and how the Ojibwa Indians benefitted from the wildlife that is attracted to this grain.

Waterfowl of many sorts are attracted to wild rice for its food producing capability. Ducks and geese also use wild rice as habitat cover for loafing and roosting. The Ojibwa hunted and collected waterfowl in many different ways. As hinted to in the following passage, waterfowl were a delicious and precious commodity:

Ducks were widely used as a food source. Frances Densmore wrote this in a passage about ricing, “If ducks were available the hunters went out in the morning…” There was a variety of hunting techniques used to harvest waterfowl that frequented the rice beds. Traditional methods included harvesting with a bow and arrow, netting the birds and another unique method. It has also been documented that birds were collected or swatted with a paddle when they could not escape from the hunters in time. Many passages can be found documenting the hunt of wildfowl. One such passage from the book Wild Rice and the Ojibway People , written by Thomas Vennum, Jr, describes the many ways waterfowl were collected. He writes, “Netting was only one means of catching rice-feeding fowl…wildfowl became easy targets when they over fed on rice and became sluggish…once Indians had guns, they hunted such wildfowl from canoes. In fact in former times, when collecting rice was mostly women’s work, Ojibway men kept busy harvesting ducks.” Still other accounts recall that waterfowl were easily collected. Gilfillan noted that, “Often the ducks get so fat with eating rice they cannot rise to fly…” Vennum again notes that “Wildfowl feeding on rice often became so bloated and sluggish they were easily dispatched with a paddled.”

Most people believe that ducks and duck hunting are viewed as mere opportunistic enterprises. One excerpt from Danzinger’s book hints that there might have been a higher understanding of waterfowl and waterfowl hunting in the past; “Families set out for their duck-hunting grounds in September and October (Leaves Falling Moon). The winter hunt began in November (Lake Freezing Moon). Hunters brought down plump waterfowl with blunt arrows.” This passage indicates that possibly waterfowling was a large part of life in rice beds, including beds that they did not collect from. This makes sense especially in light of recent studies done about waterfowl behavior in relation to people gathering wild rice. There was a study conducted at the Sherburne National Wildlife Refuge concerning the movement of waterfowl and how it was affected by wild rice harvesting. The study “showed 2 or 3 distinct population peaks, occurring in August, September, and October.” This coincides with the prime ricing time. The study also noted that, “During the first three harvests…waterfowl flushed away from the rice bed only after harvesters had entered the bed and had begun harvesting” (Fannucchi). Then on the day of the fourth harvest, the waterfowl left the bed nearly two hours before hand. It seems that the waterfowl were anticipating the arrival of the harvesters. To reinforce this, it was also observed that, “when no harvest was conducted, eighty four percent of the waterfowl using the lake left before 0930 (traditional time of harvesters arrival).” It is possible that through the meticulous nature of Native Americans they were able to observe the reactions of waterfowl to their presence. In this way, they were able to have more successful hunts.

Today, the Lac Du Flambeau tribe is part of a large undertaking. To be quite literal, they are one of the front runners in what is called the Circle of Flight Project. GLIFWC has a hand in managing many aspects of the environment in the Ceded Territory (Refer to map in appendix). As with wild rice, the Lac Du Flambeau working under the umbrella of GLIFWC, set management goals and techniques for the benefit of waterfowl. The Circle of Flight at Powell Marsh is a project designed to increase the amount of waterfowl using the area. Powell Marsh is located predominantly in Vilas County, Wisconsin (map in appendix). The project is attempting to create a better nesting habitat at Powell Marsh. This is done in a manner of ways. Some included the planting of prairie grasses and the use of fire. Fire is a tool that was used by Native Americans for many years. Fire creates open spaces and spurs energetic growth of plants (Demchik). Powell Marsh is an ideal roosting location for waterfowl because the surrounding area has a plethora of wild rice. The Lac du Flambeau and GLIFWC also strictly monitor the number of waterfowl that is harvested on and off the reservation by tribal members.

Whether duck hunting several hundred years ago or today, the Chippewa are knowledgeable in their tactics and limited in their harvest. Wild rice was and still is the key to successful harvest of waterfowl for the Chippewa. Through the efforts of the Lac Du Flambeau, GLIFWC, and society as a whole, we should still be able to enjoy wild rice and the bounty it brings.

Wild Rice the Overview

From the time that the first Anishinaabe came to the lands of Lake Superior to the present day, they have been the stewards of the wild rice crop. Wild rice is a plant that provides so much for so many. Both man and animal alike join in the yearly feast that comes about at the end of summer. The Ojibwa have recognized the value of wild rice as a food resource, economic resource, and as a tool used to attract many different wildlife species. Perhaps the most important attribute of wild rice is the spiritual connection that the Ojibwa have formed with the rice. This connection changed the face of our nation. “The food that grows on water” has moved a nation from east to west. Many generations have come and gone, but the wild rice remains. With the wise use and conservation of this resource it will be here for many more generations to come.

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